An Exegetical Commentary on

James 3:1-12

An Exegetical Paper submitted to Howard G. Andersen, Ph. D.

for partial fulfilment of a

Master Of Applied Linguistics And Exegesis

BIL 502

New Testament Greek Exegesis 1

Vera Wilhelmsen

December 17th, 2004

The Epistle of James is, like the name indicates, probably written by James, the brother of Jesus, between the 45A.D. and 50 A.D.[1] He was one of the early leaders in the Church in Jerusalem. In Gal. 2:9 he is mentioned together with Cephas (Peter) and John as the pillars of the Church, presumably referring to the Church in Jerusalem.[2]  He is also mentioned several other places in the New Testament (NT). He participated in the meeting in Jerusalem (Acts 15), and is placed among the ones who met the resurrected Jesus (1. Cor. 15:7). In Gal. 1:19 he is mentioned as an apostle: I saw none of the other apostlesonly James, the Lord's brother. This would be in the broader sense of the term apostle, as he was not among the twelve. Because he is not mentioned before Jesus death and resurrection, there is reason to believe he was converted after this point, maybe when the resurrected Jesus showed himself to him.[3] Historically has been some discussion about whether he was actually the brother of Jesus (son of Mary and Joseph), but this view has mostly been presented by Catholic and Orthodox theologians, who needed to maintain Marys perpetual virginity.[4]

            The letter has a Jewish-Christian flavour, such as a strong sense of community, a concept of wisdom found in Jewish literature, parallels and allusions to Jesus teaching, and a resemblance to the speech James held at the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15).[5]  The authoritative tone (there are 46 imperatives in James) and the language in the epistle fits well with this speech.[6] Some of the content of the letter also suggest that the author had a strong Jewish influence, even though the theology is strictly Christian.

            In sum the epistle of James can be said to be about the righteousness of God (1:20), and how this is worked out in peoples lives.[7] He talks about different qualities that should be evident in a Christian, such as endurance, obedience, impartiality, integrity, discipline, humility, patience, prayerfulness and love.[8] Other important themes are the relation of faith and works, the control of the tongue, and the importance of wisdom. He also addresses the rich repeatedly, leaving them no pride or glory.

            The epistle of James has very good Greek, as it is grammatically correct, with  hardly any solecisms and colloquialisms. [9] He uses good Hellenistic rhetoric and imagery, and clearly know the Septuagint, as he alludes to it and quotes from it.[10] The epistle is addressed to the twelve tribes in the dispersion(1:1), probably referring to the members of the Church in Jerusalem who were scattered due to persecution.[11]

In Chapter 1 he talks about the importance of wisdom, and how faith must be evident in the life of a Christian. He speaks against favouritism in chapter two, especially addressing the need to care for and respect the poor. He says that faith is dead without works, and that gives examples from the Old Testament (OT) on how people were justified because their faith and works worked together. 

            Against this background this paper seeks to investigate the meaning of the text, based on historical-grammatical exegesis. The grammatical aspects, including semantics and syntax, will be given particular attention. It should be noted that in this commentary the numbers without book reference refer to the book of James (for example 1:1), references to other books in the New Testament (NT) are referenced by book, chapter and verse. Renderings of the Greek text in English is my own (tentative) translation, if no other version is stated. In the discussion on verbs the person and number is not referred to unless it is significant in the text, because the significant meaning usually us found in tense, voice and mood.

œt À¿»»¿v ´¹´qú±»¿¹ ³w½µÃ¸µ, -The negative particle mt is usually used with non-indicative verbs, and means the same as ouv.[12] Wallace notes that there are not any hints that  the teachers must be pastors, referring to a discussion concerning whether the teachers and pastors in Eph. 4: 11 refers to the same office.[13] In this verse James is commanding the readers, using the imperative, to not have many teachers, or for many of them to become teachers.

´µ»Æ¿w ¼¿Å, -The vocative case is used for direct address in NT Greek, but in many instances there is no difference in form between the vocative and the nominative case.[14] James uses this phrase 15 times in this letter, and it gives it a personal touch.[15] He does however address all the  twelve tribes (the Christians) in the diaspora (1:1), which suggests that the term brothers can be taken to be gender-inclusive and extend beyond the people he knows intimately. Because the Church, both in Jerusalem and in the districts around the rest of the surrounding districts most certainly consisted of both men and women, and the letter is written to them, it is reasonable to assume that women are included in the term. Until a few decades ago this was the understanding in the English language also, but awareness on gender-inclusive language has changed the way language is perceived, and now an alternative term is preferred. My brothers and sisters is a valid form, as well as my friends. The vocative form evokes emotional intimacy and familiarity, and this should be rendered in the English translation also.

 µ0´yĵ EĹ ¼µÖ¶¿½ ºÁw¼± »·¼Èy¼µ¸±. -The participle is a perfect with present force, and as such 'there is very little distinction between the act and its results.[16] The verb oi\da is the most commonly used verb that is used in this way in the NT, suggesting that is  considered a stative verb.[17]

James includes himself in the ones receiving the judgement, revealing that he considers himself a teacher. The judgement he refers to is probably the judgement seat of Christ, referred to in  Rom. 4:10, 2. Cor. 5:10 and 1. Peter 4:17. This statement reminds the reader of Jesus words in Luke 12:48: From everyone who has been given much, much will be required; and to whom they entrusted much, of him they will ask all the more. (New American Standard(NAS)).

            The adjective ¼µÖ¶¿½ is in the comparative form, but leaves the comparison implicit. This is not rare for the comparative adjective.[18] The verb in the subordinated clause is a future middle indicative, implying that the subject is directly involved in the result of  the action. It can be rendered in English as we will receive for ourselves....

À¿»»p ³pÁ Àıw¿¼µ½ À±½ÄµÂ. -The conjunction  ³pÁ shows that this is the reason why James does not want many to be teachers: We all stumble in many ways. It is worth noting that À±½ÄµÂ is not the opposite of À±½ÄµÂ, but strengthens the meaning of the word. The word Àıww means to stumble or fall, literally or (here) metaphorically; err, fail.[19]

µ4 Ĺ ½ »y³ó ¿P Àıwµ¹, -This is a first class conditional clause, meaning that the condition is assumed to be true for the sake of argument.[20]  The protasis (the if-clause) uses µ4 with indicative, and the apodosis (the then-clause) any mood and tense can occur.[21] This example shows that µ4 + indicative does not always refer to something particular, but can be a general statement.[22] The verb is present active indicative, and can have an undefined or a continuous aspect. In this context there does not seem to be any emphasis on the continuity of the action, so the undefined aspect fits well.

¿WÄ¿Â Äs»µ¹¿Â ½uÁ, -This predicative clause has no expressed verb, which is not infrequent for such clauses in NT Greek. Because the subject is a pronoun, there is no problem to distinguish it from the predicate nominative.[23] The use of the demonstrative pronoun may seem redundant, but is has a great rhetorical power.[24] In this case, it refers back to the subject (ĹÂ) of the protasis clause (the condition), and needs to be repeated in the apodosis clause (the result). [25] The adjective Äs»µ¹¿Â means having reached its end, that is complete, perfect or mature.[26] It is used several time in the NT to refer to a mature Christian or Church, as in Eph. 4:13: to a mature man, to the measure of the stature which belongs to the fullness of Christ.(NAS). Of the 19 occurrences of the word in the NT, James uses it 5 times, so this is clearly a key word with James. He uses it to refer to its perfect result, that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing. (1:4), the perfect gift (1:17),and  the perfect law (1:25).[27] His concern is that Christians live a complete, perfect and mature life, according to the gift  God gave us in the Gospel.

´Å½±Äx DZ»¹½±³É³Æñ¹ º±v E»¿½ Äx Ãö¼±. -´Å½±Äx is here an adjective, and not a verb, as is more common. It is still followed by an infinitive, which makes the construction very similar to a complementary infinitive.[28] The infinitive is in the aorist tense, signifying an undefined aspect.  º±v functions here as an adverb, adding to what is already said (translated also). Wallace calls this emphatic connective, or adjunctive.[29] The idea is that if a man is able to not sin with his words, he can control his whole body (from sinning).

µ0 ´r Äö½ 5ÀÀɽ Ä¿z DZ»¹½¿z µ0 Äp ÃÄy¼±Ä± ²q»»¿¼µ½ -Here the conjunction signals continuity and can be translated and. Äö½ 5ÀÀɽ can either modify Ä¿z DZ»¹½¿z or Äp ÃÄy¼±Ä±, but as James is very well written I suspect he meant it to modify both, by ellipsis. The phrase Äö½ DZ»¹½ö½ Äö½ 5ÀÀɽ is found in Rev. 14:20, showing that the noun sometimes is being modified by the genitive Äö½ 5ÀÀɽ.

µ0 Äx Àµw¸µÃ¸±¹ ±PÄ¿z !¼Ö½, -This phrase can either be rendered as in order for them to be persuaded by us or in order for them to obey us. The verb Àµw¸w means I obey, trust, and this is the most natural meaning.[30] The infinitive Àµw¸µÃ¸±¹ is followed by a personal pronoun in the accusative case (±PÄ¿zÂ), which functions as the subject of the infinitive.[31] The verb takes its direct object in the dative(!¼Ö½ ).[32] This construction is an example of an adverbial use of the infinitive, expressing purpose.[33]

º±v E»¿½ Äx Ãö¼± ±PÄö½ ¼µÄq³¿¼µ½. -Again º±v functions as an adverbial, rendered as also. The verb is present active indicative, and has the continual aspect: we are leading them. This verb is an example of a customary or habitual present, signalling an action that is regularly occurring, but not without interruption.[34] The inference is that every time a human puts a bridle in a horses mouth, we are able to guide the whole body of the horse.

0´¿z º±v Äp À»¿Ö±, -0´¿z was originally the second person singular imperative middle voice of ei[dw: I see.[35] The word has become a particle in Greek, and carries the meaning look!or  think about this:. This is reflected in different translations of this phrase: Look at the ships also...(New American Standard); Behold also the ships... (King James Version); Or think of a ship... (Good News Translation).

Ä·»¹º±æı D½Ä± º±v QÀx ½s¼É½ ú»·Áö½ »±Å½y¼µ½±, -The participle D½Ä± is in present tense and active voice, the tense carrying the continuing aspect: being so great... This is again a general statement, being great is an inherent quality of ships, according to James. »±Å½y¼µ½± is a present passive participle, describing the ship as being driven by hard, strong winds.

¼µÄq³µÄ±¹ QÀx »±ÇwÃÄ¿Å À·´±»w¿Å -The present middle or passive verb ¼µÄq³µÄ±¹ can be rendered are guided or are being guided. The passive meaning is clear because it is followed by the proposition QÀx, by. The verb is in 3^rd person singular, but refers to the plural neuter noun À»¿Ö±. This is natural, because neuter plural nouns take a singular verb. Again the present verb is an habitual present, referring to an action that is regularly occuring. The superlative »±ÇwÃÄ¿Å is used for the elative, and the phrase should probably be rendered a very small rudder and not the smallest rudder.[36]

EÀ¿Å ! AÁ¼t Ä¿æ µP¸{½¿½Ä¿Â ²¿{»µÄ±¹: -The participle Ä¿æ µP¸{½¿½Ä¿Â functions substantivally here (of the one steering). The verb in the subordinated clause is a present middle (deponent) indicative, with the middle meaning of deciding for oneself. The impulse (! AÁ¼t) is the subject in the subordinated clause, and it seems to be personified as the one who decides or wishes where to go.

¿UÄÉ º±v ! ³»öÃñ ¼¹ºÁx½ ¼s»¿Â ÃÄv½ º±v ¼µ³q»± ±PǵÖ. Here the key word ³»öÃñ is mentioned for the first time. The whole passage (3:1-12) is about the tongue, and how hard it is to control it. The tongue frequently symbolizes a persons speech in the Bible, and evidently what a person says is very important.[37]

        The references to horses bits and rudders on ships are of course illustrations of how the tongue works, and now James makes the analogy clear. He follows up with a new illustration, the tongue as fire, which turns into a metaphor in the next verse (the tongue is a fire). There is alliteration in this phrase: ¼¹ºÁx½ ¼s»¿Â ÃÄv½ º±v ¼µ³q»± ±PǵÖ.[38] The article in ! ³»öÃñ is generic, referring to the human tongue, and by inference, speech, as a class or phenomenon.

8´¿z !»wº¿½ ÀæÁ !»wº·½ U»·½ ½qÀĵ¹: -The word !»wº·½ is an interesting word for a translator; is can mean both how small and how great.[39] It is an interrogative pronoun, meaning as big as or as old as,  or in an expression of wonder, which is probably what it is in this care.[40] U»·½ can mean forest, wood or matter, and KJV renders this phrase: Behold, how great a matter a little fire kindleth!.[41] James probably wanted to put great force in this expression, seeing that he put in 0´¿z and the pronouns expressing wonder, therefore forest is the preferred option.

º±v ! ³»öÃñ ÀæÁ` - This metaphor is formed with the verbless predicative clause, and has tremendous power, even in such few words. The option of leaving out the verb makes the Greek language potent and filled with meaning, each word being very significant for the meaning of the whole.

A ºyü¿Â ÄÆ ´¹ºw±Â, ! ³»öÃñ º±¸wÃıı¹ ½ Ä¿Ö ¼s»µÃ¹½ !¼ö½,  -The noun phrase A ºyü¿Â ÄÆ ´¹ºw±Â can either belong to the clause before it, or the one after. It fits best as an apposition to the following noun phrase, rendering the clause as The tongue, the world of unrighteousness,  is set among our members,  staining the whole body, burning the wheel of life, and being set on fire by hell. This concurs with the punctuation in the USB Greet New Testament, also. The verb º±¸wÃıı¹ is a present passive indicative, meaning it is made to settle, or it is set.

! ÃÀ¹»¿æñ E»¿½ Äx Ãö¼± º±v Æ»¿³w¶¿Åñ Äx½ ÄÁ¿Çx½ ÄÆ ³µ½sõÉ º±v Æ»¿³¹¶¿¼s½· QÀx ÄÆ ³µs½½·Â. -There are three participles following the main verb, and they all function adjectivally, modifying the subject.

À¶Ã± ³pÁ Æ{ù ¸·Áwɽ ĵ º±v ÀµÄµ¹½ö½ ÁÀµÄö½ ĵ º±v ½±»wɽ ´±¼q¶µÄ±¹ º±v ´µ´q¼±Ãı¹ ÄÇ Æ{õ¹ ÄÇ ½¸ÁÉÀw½Ã:  The postpositive conjunction ³pÁ signals that the following sentence is the reason for the preceding statement. Several of the words in this phrase rare in the NT; ½±»woV is used only here, ÁÀµÄo½ is used only three other places in the NT, and ´±¼q¶w is used only one other place in the NT.[42] The verb forms present mid/passive indicative and perfect mid/passive indicative illustrates the beauty of Greek aspects; by using two different tenses James covers both a continuous and a completed aspect of the action. He is by this emphasising that this is something that had been going on, and to a certain degree accomplished, but it is still taking place in the history of mankind. It is interesting also how he uses the term Æ{ù to refer to both animals and humans. This underscores his next point; that no one can tame the human tongue. The phrase ÄÇ Æ{õ¹ ÄÇ ½¸ÁÉÀw½Ã is an example of instrumental dative; they are being tamed by humankind.[43] It is also an example of the second attributive position for an adjective; article-noun-article-adjective.[44] The emphasis is equally given to the noun and the adjective, the adjective functioning almost as an apposition to the noun.[45]

Ät½ ´r ³»öÃñ½ ¿P´µv ´±¼qñ¹ ´{½±Ä±¹ ½¸Á}Àɽ: -The contrast and irony in the fact that humankind can tame the wild beasts but not their own tongue is brought to light here, with a clever use of words: ´±¼qñ¹ ´{½±Ä±¹ is both a rhyme and an alliteration. The verb forms are aorist active infinitive and present middle (deponent) indicative respectively, the aorist being  undefined when it comes to aspect. The present indicative might be continuous, hinting that the action is an ongoing process, not being able to tame. The contrast with the preceding clause is also signified by the postpositive conjunction ´r.

º±ÄqÃıĿ½ º±ºy½, ¼µÃÄt 0¿æ ¸±½±Ä·ÆyÁ¿Å. These adjectives modify the object of the main clause, namely Ät½ ³»öÃñ½. They are in apposition to the noun, elaborating on the nature of the tongue. Instead of º±ÄqÃıĿ½ (restless) some textual witnesses has º±ÄqÃceton, uncontrollable. The United Bible Societies (UBS) committee for the Greek New Testament found the former to be more probable, since it is the least common description.[46] ¸±½±Ä·ÆyÁ¿V is a unique occurrence in the NT. 

½ ±PÄÇ µP»¿³¿æ¼µ½ Äx½ º{Á¹¿½ º±v À±ÄsÁ±, -The verb is present active indicative 1^st person plural, so James includes himself in this category. Textual variants (including Textus Receptus) has qeovn instead of º{Á¹¿½, but the UBS committee judged that the latter is more probable, because Äx½ º{Á¹¿½ º±v À±ÄsÁ± is an unusual combination, and is more likely to be changed to Äx½ qeovn º±v À±ÄsÁ±.[47] There is also superior external evidence for º{Á¹¿½.[48] According to the Granville Sharp rule the two nouns refers to the same person, as neither is impersonal, neither is plural, and neither is a proper name.[49] If so, this passage is a strong argument for the deity of Christ.[50]

º±v ½ ±PÄÇ º±Ä±Á}¼µ¸± Ä¿z ½¸Á}À¿Å Ŀz º±¸' A¼¿wÉù½ ¸µ¿æ ³µ³¿½yıÂ: -Also here James includes himself in the action of the verb, this time we curse or we are cursing. If he includes himself as a part of humankind or if the inclusion is more personal is not clear from the text, even though it is theologically sound to assume that all human beings stumble when it comes to the tongue. The fact that he addresses the issue does not mean that James think of himself as elevated above this, even though as a leader and teacher one should expect a degree of maturity in him. Nevertheless, he includes himself both in the blessing of God and in the cursing of men. The construction Ä¿z ½¸Á}À¿Å Ŀz º±¸' A¼¿wÉù½ ¸µ¿æ ³µ³¿½yı has a preposition phrase functioning as an adjective in the second attributive position, putting emphasis on the modifier. The likeness of God, A¼¿wÉù½ ¸µ¿æ, is a clear example of the attributed genitive, which is the opposite of attributive genitive.[51] In this construction the head noun has a stronger force  than an adjective would have had, and the specific relation between the two nouns is not always obvious.[52] There could have been an adjective instead of a noun, and instead of  likeness of God it would have read like God, or similar to God.

º Ä¿æ ±PÄ¿æ ÃÄy¼±Ä¿Â ¾sÁǵı¹ µP»¿³w± º±v º±ÄqÁ±. The intensive pronoun ±PÄ¿V is here used as an identifying adjective, modifying an articular substantive in the attributive position.[53] It is translated the same. The verb is present middle indicative, meaning goes out or comes forth.

¿P ÇÁu, ´µ»Æ¿w ¼¿Å, ıæı ¿UÄÉ ³w½µÃ¸±¹. The vocative construction is repeated here, showing that James has strong emotions for the people he writes to. In English the clause may be rendered These things ought not be so. The first verb (ÇÁu) is the present active indicative meaning it ought, or it should. The infinitive ³w½µÃ¸±¹ is a present middle (deponent) infinitive, and it is a complimentary infinitive, complimenting the meaning of the main verb.[54]

¼uĹ ! À·³t º ÄÆ ±PÄÆ @ÀÆ ²Á{µ¹ Äx ³»Åºz º±v Äx À¹ºÁy½; - ¼uĹ is a conjunction which means no, not, neither... In this clause the fountain (! À·³t) is the subject, and it is interesting how it is personified as to pour out sweet and bitter from the same opening. It is also interesting to note that water is not expressed, but implied by the context. Most English translations add the word water, though, probably because the English rendering sounds unnatural without it.

¼t ´{½±Ä±¹, ´µ»Æ¿w ¼¿Å, ÃÅºÆ »±w±Â À¿¹Æñ¹ " ¼Àµ»¿Â Ã溱;

The negative particle ¼t expects a negative answer, but in English the most natural thing is to leave out the negation, and let it become a rhetorical question; Can a fig tree, my brethren, produce olives, or a vine produce figs? (NAS). Another alternative would be Surely a fig tree is not able.... The main verb in this clause is a present middle (deponent) indicative; ´{½±Ä±¹. The infinitive À¿¹Æñ¹ functions as a compliment to the main verb, even if is it removed from it by several words. In the second noun phrase (¼Àµ»¿Â Ã溱) the verb is omitted by ellipsis because it is the same as in the preceding phrase.

¿Tĵ
»Åºx½ ³»Åºz À¿¹Æñ¹ U´ÉÁ. the main verb extends to this phrase also, and only the infinitive is repeated. This last phrase probably has a lot of ellipsis; not only is the main verb left out, but there is no substantival subject. The literal neither salt sweet make water makes little sense in English, and different translations deals with this in different ways. KJV renders so can no fountain both yield salt water and fresh., adding both can, fountain, both and and. The NAS has Nor can salt water produce fresh., only supplying the verb can. Exactly what is left out by ellipsis is hard to determine, and either rendering is acceptable. The meaning is clear in either case, whether the water comes from a fountain or not.

James 3:1-12 is a powerful passage. It speaks of the power of the tongue, and emphasizes the importance of being able to control it. The passage contains some powerful imagery, painting pictures of horses and ships, wind and fire, beasts and reptiles. It is impressed on the reader that the tongue, even though it is small and might seem insignificant, has enormous power. If anyone wants to be mature, and maybe even a teacher, learning how to control the tongue is the first, and vital step towards achieving that.

Gaebelein, Frank E, ed. The Expositors Bible Commentary, Hebrews-Revelation. Vol. 12 of  The Expositors Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.

Metzger, Bruce. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament.1971. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies, 1994.

Mounce, William D. Basics of Biblical Greek. 1993. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 2003.

Porter, Stanley E. Idioms of the Greek New Testament. 1992. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999.

Wallace, Daniel B. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996.

[1] The Expositors Bible Commentary, Hebrews-Revelation,by Gaebelein, by Frank E, ed. Vol. 12 of  The

Expositors Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981, 162

[2] The Anchor Bible Dictionary, H-J, by David Noel Freedman, ed. Vol. 3. of  The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Bantam Doubleday Publishers, 1992, s.v. James, brother of Jesus

[3] Ibid.

[4] The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, by George Arthur Buttrick, ed.  E-J. Vol.2 of  The Interpreters

Dictionary of the Bible. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1962, s.v. James, the epistle of 

[5]Zondervan Handbook of the Bible, by David Alexander and Pat Alexander, eds. Grand Rapids,

Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1999, s.v. James

[6] Ibid.

[7] The Interpreters Dictionary of the Bible, by George Arthur Buttrick, ed.  E-J. Vol.2 of  The Interpreters

Dictionary of the Bible. Nashville, Tennessee: Abingdon Press, 1962, s.v. James, the epistle of 

[8] Ibid.

[9] The Anchor Bible Dictionary, H-J by David Noel Freedman, ed. Vol. 3. of  The Anchor Bible

Dictionary. New York, New York: Bantam Doubleday Publishers, 1992, s.v. James, the epistle of 

[10] Ibid.

[11] The Expositors Bible Commentary, Hebrews-Revelation,by Gaebelein, by Frank E, ed. Vol. 12 of  The

Expositors Bible Commentary. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1981, 162-163

[12] William D. Mounce. Basics of Biblical Greek. 1993. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House,

2003, 243

[13] Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 284

[14] Stanley E. Porter. Idioms of the Greek New Testament. 1992. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic

Press, 1999, 87

[15] The KJV New Testament Greek Lexicon by Thayer and Smith. Available online: <http://www.biblestudytools.net/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2400&version=kjv>, s.v. ajdelfovß

[16] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 580, italics in original

[17] Ibid., 579

[18] Ibid., 299.

[19] The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible by James Strong.  1894. Nashville: Abingdon, 1980,

s.v. Àıww and An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott. 1889. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1996, s.v. Àıww

[20] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 690

[21] Ibid.

[22] Ibid., 706

[23] Ibid., 43

[24] Ibid., 329-330

[25] Ibid., 689

[26] The vocabulary of the Greek Testament by James H. Moulton and George Milligan. 1930. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1963, s.v. Äs»µ¹¿Â

[27] These verses are from the NAS translation

[28] William D. Mounce. Basics of Biblical Greek. 1993. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House,

2003, 304

[29] Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 671

[30] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 416

[31] William D. Mounce. Basics of Biblical Greek. 1993. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House,

2003, 303

[32] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 171-172

[33] Ibid., 590-592

[34] Ibid., 521

[35] The KJV New Testament Greek Lexicon by Thayer and Smith. Available online: www.biblestudytools.net/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi; s.v.  0´¿z

[36] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 303

[37] For a word study on ³»öÃñ, see Appendix 2.

[38] Freedman, David Noel, ed. The Anchor Bible Dictionary, H-J. Vol. 3. of  The Anchor Bible

Dictionary. New York, New York: Bantam Doubleday Publishers, 1992, s.v. James, the

epistle of

[39] cf. NKJV: See how great a forest a little fire kindles!

[40] An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott. 1889. Oxford: Oxford </p>

University Press, 1996, s.v. !»wº·½

[41] Ibid., s.v. U»·

[42] The KJV New Testament Greek Lexicon by Thayer and Smith. Available online: www.biblestudytools.net/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi; s.v. ½±»woV, ÁÀµÄo½, ´±¼q¶w

[43] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 165

[44]Ibid., 306

[45] Ibid.

[46] Bruce Metzger. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament.1971. Stuttgart:

United Bible Societies, 1994, 611

[47] Bruce Metzger. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament.1971. Stuttgart:

United Bible Societies, 1994, 611

[48] Ibid.

[49] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 271-272

[50] A discussion on the Granville Sharp rule is beyond the scope of this paper

[51] Daniel B. Wallace. Greek Grammar Beyond the basics. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1996, 89

[52] Ibid., 90

[53] Ibid, 349

[54] William D. Mounce. Basics of Biblical Greek. 1993. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House,

2003, 304